Golden Crescent
The Golden Crescent is a regional area in Central South Asia that starts from Pakistan and extends to Iran through Afghanistan. Historically, it is recognized as the Golden Crescent.
The moderate and humid climate and sandy soil of this region make it suitable for cultivating Papaver somniferum, also known as opium poppy. The milky liquid extracted from its pods is called opium, which is the primary ingredient for various narcotics. Throughout history, opium has been associated with the wealth of criminal groups and gangs.
Opium from India and Pakistan
More than 80% of the drugs and opium that enters India comes from its neighboring country, Pakistan. The Golden Crescent includes three countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran, which are involved in the production and distribution of opium and heroin.
In an interview with 872 drug dealers, the majority admitted that drugs are being smuggled from Pakistan into India, followed by Nepal and Afghanistan. According to another report titled ‘Pakistan’s Larger Plan to Combat Drugs’ by the South Asia Democratic Forum (SADF), there has been an increasing number of exchanges of shipments containing drugs, weapons, and ammunition at the India-Pakistan border, especially in the Punjab region controlled by Indian border security forces.
The expansion of terrorism activities and arms trade has taken place both quantitatively and qualitatively. Drug trafficking has become an integral part of Pakistan’s state-sponsored support for terrorism across the border, serving as a tool for waging a proxy war against its neighboring country, India, which has always been its main antagonist in the region. Pakistan’s leadership in international drug trade and its economic support for terrorist organizations have been confirmed by several domestic sources within Pakistan.
After the Taliban took control of Afghanistan in 1996, the focus of terrorists shifted to the Jammu and Kashmir region, which is administered by India. Heroin sales are used to clandestinely finance military operations in Kashmir with the help of jihadist organizations through proxy wars. The Pakistani army, especially the ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence), is known for its relations with terrorist organizations and support for them. The ISI, which is the main intelligence agency of Pakistan, is managed by the Pakistani Army.
The ISI, being the most important and powerful among the intelligence services of the country, plans and coordinates operations, including support and communication with the Haqqani network. The Haqqani network is connected to the Al-Qaeda network and is accused of being involved in a major international drug trafficking network.
Therefore, the connection between drug trafficking and terrorism remains a key issue in the domestic and foreign policies of South Asia and within the framework of relations between India and Pakistan. Pakistan’s involvement in state-sponsored terrorism and support for international terrorism is well-documented and recognized.
An academic article published in 2010 claimed that not only Pakistan but also Afghanistan has been synonymous with a drug state since 2001. Between 2007 and 2008, the drug-based economy in Afghanistan reached a level that had never been seen in contemporary history, at least since World War II. At that time, Afghanistan supplied 93% of the international opium market, with Europe being the primary target market, accounting for over 95% of it.
According to a United Nations report in 2020, Afghanistan produced 85% of the world’s heroin. According to an international organization, its production has been over 6,000 tons per year for the past five years. Between 2002 and 2020, the land used for poppy cultivation tripled, and methamphetamine production also emerged as a result.
Opium is mainly a source of income for the impoverished sectors of society, particularly those living in rural areas who make a living through poppy cultivation.
The government’s fight against illegal cultivation has been observed at different times, and drug trafficking is actually the main part of the country’s economy, guaranteeing employment for half a million people and livelihood for about two million Afghans.
Opium substances are primarily a source of income for marginalized communities, often living in rural outskirts and earning a living through poppy cultivation. The Afghan government has implemented various measures to ban illegal crops at different times.
The first wave of this fight began in 2005 with the prohibition of opium cultivation, followed by new campaigns in 2008 and 2009 that aimed to suppress and further ban cultivation. These bans resulted in a significant reduction of up to 90% in the income of many rural families, leading to their impoverishment and pushing them into debt.
Legal economic activities, especially for those living far from Jalalabad, the center of Nangarhar province, and major cities, did not take root. Many of them resorted once again to criminal activities, ranging from kidnapping for extortion to theft. Some also migrated to Pakistan, where they were often employed by the Taliban.
Even after the departure of the West and the Taliban’s re-emergence, Afghanistan cannot rely on economic assistance from international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United States, and the European Union. Additionally, due to the blocked access to deposited funds outside the country, there is a possibility that the new authorities in Kabul may resort to increasing illegal opium production.
Although the Taliban government has announced a new ban on opium cultivation to gain international legitimacy, particularly from countries like Iran, China, and Russia, which have been most affected by drug trafficking from Afghanistan, the new government will still struggle to advance without a traditional economy based on opium production and new opportunities in the methamphetamine market.
As a result, in order to ensure the consolidation of their rule and the stability of the country, Afghanistan will continue with opium trafficking, relying on the assistance of allied militias and local warlords.
The contemporary opium trade in Afghanistan is associated with structural factors such as insecurity, flawed political structure, local militias, and a weak economy, making it one of the poorest economies in the world.
Pakistan and the European Union
Pakistan is under pressure from the European Union and has strongly felt it, as the country’s status in the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) scheme, which grants developing countries exemptions from certain export tariff rates to the EU, depends on the Pakistani government’s commitment to combating drug trafficking. If Islamabad fails in this matter, it may be affected.
The GSP scheme is contingent upon the implementation of 27 international conventions on human rights, labor rights, environmental protection, and good governance, including the United Nations Convention on Illicit Drug Trafficking.
Pakistan achieved an excellent position in 2014 and demonstrated its commitment to upholding resolutions and reporting obligations to UN treaty bodies. However, one aspect of this scheme is the measurement of temporary withdrawal and safeguard for protection. This means that if a country fails to effectively control drug trafficking, the preferences can be immediately revoked.
The GSP status is very important for Pakistan as the European Union is its largest trading partner, accounting for over one-third of its total exports in 2018. The United States, China, and Afghanistan are the next major trading partners in order. The European Union can use this leverage as a pressure tool to gain concessions from Pakistan.
Even with joint efforts to eliminate the problem of drug trafficking in Pakistan, it has been very difficult because drug production does not take place within the country’s borders. Even with strengthened border patrols, it will be very challenging to prevent the entry of drugs if the neighboring government of Afghanistan does not take necessary and sufficient actions.
Since 2001, Pakistan has pursued a zero-tolerance policy towards opium substances. It has achieved this by promoting the strengthening of anti-drug cultivation laws and focusing on alternative economic development in rural areas. This has led to a significant reduction in drug substances in the country. However, due to its shared border with Afghanistan, it remains vulnerable to drug trafficking.
It is enough to know that until 2017, there were approximately 3000 tons of drugs in the territory of this country. With the underground economy progress of drug trafficking in Afghanistan, it is likely that we will see an increase in the allocated area for such products in Pakistan. The Anti-Narcotics Force (ANF) is the main drug control organization throughout the country, processing data and statistics related to this matter every year.
Therefore, the challenge for the Islamic Republic of Pakistan at the international level still exists. In fact, Pakistan, as part of the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND), has proposed multiple policies to enhance education against the spread and use of drugs, which have been approved by other member countries.
Despite all these measures, we are still witnessing that this trend is not inclined towards reduction in the region. Among the reasons for this, we can mention the following:
- فقدان جایگزین های اقتصادی برای امرار معاش تولید کنندگان
- تقاضای صعودی و همیشگی برای مواد افیونی
- عدم همکاری موثر فرامرزی برای مبارزه با قاچاق مواد مخدر.
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